Methods of data collection and
analysis
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are used to stimulate responses to set items (Pollard). They require a certain level of writing skills because they are
given to respondents. They can be used to collect factual information and
personal opinions. The format of the questionnaire may consist of closed
(yes/no answers) and open (general answers) questions. Appendix 4 is an example
of close questions; appendix 5 is an example of open questions. Open forms of questionnaires
enable respondents to express their points of view more efficiently but demand
time and writing ability. They are useful in providing information for school
records; finding out how students are feeling about certain aspects of school
life or in evaluating lessons.
Interviews
According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison,
interviews are flexible tools for data collection. Many types of channels can
be used such as; verbal, non-verbal, spoken and heard. There are certain aspects
which can be controlled for example, the order of the interview questions.
However, the responses are complex and uncontrollable. If the interviewer is
amiable, the interview will be typically more successful, only if the subject
is expansive and to interviewer bias, however. Furthermore, the respondents’
emotions may influence the result of the interview, if the timing is
inconvenient of the meeting is inconvenient, for instance. Additionally, keeping subject anonymity may
prove difficult if the interviewer is uninformed of the ethics necessary.
Focus group interviews
When interviews involve two or more people (either subjects
or interviewers) they are referred to as ‘focus groups’ (Blaxter, Hughes &
Tight).
There are numerous advantages of focus groups. The group
members can define the interviewer’s agenda with their experience. The group
members may be diverse, so that different views may be generated. The
discussion between the members will allow for an analysis of process in
negotiating the meanings and challenge the interviewer. Group members may feel
safer having their friends around to discuss the important issues. As a result
of discussion, the interviewer may come across with some surprising findings. However, there are also disadvantages to focus
groups. For example, it is difficult to document the data in order to find out
who said what during the interview. What is more, depending on group dynamics,
there may be silence or exaggeration of issues.
The interviewer should be careful about fair amount of participation in
the group even for those who are shy or quiet. It is also important to consider
confidentiality and ethics (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight).
Observations
Observation is looking systematically at people, events,
behaviours, settings, artefacts, routines etc. (Marshall & Rossman).
It enables the observer to directly gather data from its
natural setting, like in ethnographic research. The observer can focus on a number
of books or students in a class, number of visitors in a library, the behaviour
of students in a class, the amount of teacher-student talk and so on. Observing
allows the spectator to see more detailed accounts of the events. However, the
clarity of evidence depends on the number of observers and the amount of time
they observe as well as how they observe (Cohen, Manion and Morrison ).
There are also some issues to this data collection method.
The observer requires choosing the time relevantly and deciding if s/he needs
to devise an observational schedule or determine pre-coded categories. It would
be wise to form a pilot group first to test these. If there is no need for a
schedule, it would be wise to decide how to organize the data. Is it important
to record absolutely everything or is it ok to record the events partly? The observer needs to select his/her focus
group well and try to make sure s/he blends with the observed group (Blaxter,
Hughes & Tight)
Surveys
Surveys are systematic observation or interviewing where the
questions are dictated by the researcher. The biggest distinction in surveys is
to standardize the research and get consistent answers for their questions. In
order to standardize the questionnaire as a measuring instrument, the questions
are always structured in the same way.
The advantage of a survey is that with a suitable sample, it
can aim at representation and provide generalized results. Surveys are
relatively easier to administer and they don’t require fieldwork. They can be
repeated in the future to compare the results. A good response rate will
provide a lot of data rapidly. There are also disadvantages of surveys. The
data may not address the more important issues and may get lost in pie charts,
tables and statistics. The survey- provided data allows us to see snapshots of
points in time rather than in-depth issues. The researcher cannot check the
data himself/herself. The survey relies on extent rather than intensity.
(Blaxter, Hughes & Tight)
Analysing data
My research will consist of observations, one-to-one
interviews and focus group interviews. Therefore, I will be looking at
different approaches to qualitative data analysis. My other sources will be
field notes, documents and reports, memos, diaries and website data. I will decide if I would like to have the
interviews transcribed or not. The
results will be presented as narrative accounts. Cohen, Manion and Morrison explain that the narrative account may be in the form of chronology,
a logical analysis, a thematic analysis or a series of stories about the
research findings. I aim to present my findings as a series of stories
structured by chronology, causal relations, key participants, key themes, key
behaviours, and actions, turning points in a life history, key decisions and with
collective analysis of the unfolding events for the participants (Cohen, Manion
and Morrison).
Ethical considerations
Two significant issues for researchers are access and
ethics. These are also the key issues throughout data collection. Access means
to locate and identify suitable participants who would be willing to take part
in the research (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight). The questions to
consider during access are identifying key people for the subject that is to be
researched and the general rules about recording informed consent which needs
to be complied (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight).
There are many different
rules and regulations for informed consent depending on the type of
establishment. For example, the Informed
consent in health and social care research of Royal College of Nursing is different than Bera (British Educational Research Association). To increase the chance of access, it is really important to ask
advice for negotiation, to be modest in requests, making effective use of
existing contacts, to base research within the establishments which one has
access to, to offer something back such as a report or feedback, to know when
to ask, to be as clear as possible and to explain the reasons for one’s
research (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight).
The main goal of all researchers should be to carry out an
ethically approved research. Most ethical issues rise from the nature of
relationships between the researcher and the subject. (Blaxter, Hughes &
Tight). Common ethical issues are confidentiality, anonymity,
legality, professionalism and participation (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight).
In the matter of confidentiality, it may be tempting to
share some unwanted information with others but this may be damaging for the
participant. Linking to confidentiality, anonymity may not be protected due to
giving away too much information about the institutions. The researcher should
make sure that s/he is not involved in concealing any criminal activities. In
addition, s/he needs to make sure to keep the professionalism at all times,
even though it may be difficult if the research takes place among fellow
professionals. It is quite important to understand the nature of the
participants who may be the same people required the research, particularly in
mental health and disability.
Some of the websites which include the ethical guidelines of
different institutions may be found listed under “references”.
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