Case studies
Newby states that a case study is a thorough
analysis of a typical or unusual event or occurrence which was either
successful or encountered a problem. Case
studies analyse particular instances rather than search for the general truth. They
usually have two goals: to find the patterns created by the processes at work
and to uncover variations from the expected.
Case studies are methodologically eclectic. The numerous
types of case studies involve ethnography, experiment, action research, surveys,
illuminative, observational and documentary research that allow flexibility in
using different ways of data collection such as quantitative and qualitative
data collection, as well as flexible means of analysing the data which can be
both short and long term.
Case studies possess different advantages (Adelman); the source of data is based from real
situations, they allow generalizations about an instance, recognise the
complexity and ‘embeddedness’ of
social truths, hold the archive values for other researchers and users whose
purposes are dissimilar to each other. Their results instigate action for staff
or individual development, formative evaluation and educational policies. The
research findings and data from case studies are more accessible than other
types of research because they are easier to understand. They can also serve
multiple purposes and audiences for they allow readers to judge the situation
themselves before making decisions.
There are also disadvantages of case studies (Nisbet and
Watt). If there is not an
application, for instance, the results may not be generalizable. Moreover, the
results can be selective, biased, personal and subjective. If the researcher or
observer is biased, the results may be problematic to use. Additionally, the
complexity of the case may make the analysis harder. Even though everything may
appear relevant, one might find that they are irrelevant when writing up the
actual case. Finally, with case studies it can be difficult to know where
‘context’ begins and ends (Blaxter, Hughes & Tight)
Action research
Lewin (1946) named this method of research, which originated
from ‘action’ and ‘research’ (Pollard). It requires teachers,
researchers and other practitioners to plan, act, observe and reflect in a
cyclical process.
Action research aims to directly improve practice through
self-development (Pollard) and its characteristic methods are cyclical
designs, based-on self monitoring using a range of data in a practitioner’s
workplace. Action research is evaluative; it describes and analyses personal
practice.
Action research can be used in different areas such as: in
teaching methods, learning strategies, evaluative procedures, attitudes and
values, continuing professional development, management and control as well as
administration (Cohen, Manion and Morrison).
Action research is a device which includes identifying the
problem, planning an intervention, implementing the intervention and evaluating
the outcome.
The research in appendix 3 is a typical example of action
research. It was planned by an elementary school teacher and the new head
teacher of the school. The aims of the research are to find out if there was
significant increase in learning using the inquiry-based strategies and also to
see if the students were motivated more by learning science concepts using inquiry-
based instruction versus traditional teaching practices.
One of the biggest strengths of action research is that it
is quite straightforward in tackling issues. The methodology and data gathering
are not complicated therefore an action researcher does not need to learn
analytical skills. There is no need to rely on researchers, experts or outside
authorities. (Kember)
However, there are also difficulties in undertaking action
research. The first one is making sure that the experiment and control are
genuinely comparable. Educational settings are quite difficult to control or
design experiments for, because of their variables which interact with one
another in unexpected ways. There are also ethical issues during the
investigation; one side may feel disadvantaged.
Designing different teaching programmes, arranging for the separation
of groups and holding extraneous variables constant becomes more difficult the
longer the trial.
(Kember)
Ethnographic research
The meaning of ‘ethnography’ is to describe peoples and
cultures. Originally, it was used as a research method by anthropologists and
aimed to provide an account of the cultures and lives of small, isolated tribes
(Denscombe). For instance, a book called ‘The Navaho’ by Clyde
Kluckhohn and Dorothea Leighton is written after an ethnographic research about
the biggest American- Indian tribe in 1946. The purpose of this research was to understand
the traditions & culture in Navahos, to find out how they were coping with
the American-Western way of living, if it is possible to protect their heritage
despite the pressure of industrialization.
According to Whyte ‘ethnographic’
research requires the researcher to spend a long time in the field amongst the
people whose lives and culture are being investigated. The ethnographer needs
to share the same life as all aspects of ‘everyday life’ are considered to be
valuable data. Special attention should be paid to those whose lives are being
studied. It generally prefers a holistic approach towards relationships,
connections and interdependency. It is a construction which requires particular
writing skills and is influenced by the ethnographer’s own experiences (Denscombe).
The advantages of ethnography are: it is a direct form of observation
and empirical which involves direct contact with relevant people and is also
possible to link with theory. The data is relatively rich in detail and seeks holistic
explanations which put things in context. Furthermore, it allows the comparing
and contrasting of other culture. The ‘actors’ point view and perceptions are
open and explicit. Finally, it is ecologically valid so that the researcher
should have little impact on the setting (Denscombe).
According to Denscombe there are also disadvantages
of ethnography such as: tension between wanting to stay as close to the truth
as possible and the influence of the ethnographer’s personal experience and
social awareness. Although it produces a large number of stories, they may be
isolated from each other if the researcher isn’t guided by the theoretical
framework. If the researcher makes storytelling their only purpose, there is a potential
of losing analytical insight or theoretical position. Reliability can be
another problem as it is often difficult to generalize culture and events.
Ethics can be an obstacle because of the intrusion into private lives. Finally,
two other disadvantages are: accessing the settings without disruption and
insider knowledge which may result with a blind spot that obscures the obvious.
(Denscombe)
Phenomenology
Newby describes ‘Phenomenology’ as how we give
significance to our experiences of the world rather than how the world really
is. Phenomenologist examines the
individual and collective experiences of the ‘life-world’. They use
description, observation, reporting and reflection.
Cohen, Manion and Morrison say that;
‘Phenomenology’ is a
theoretical point of view that advocates the study of direct experience taken
at face value; and one which sees behaviour as determined by the phenomena of
experience rather than by external, objective and physically described
reality.
According to Curtis there are three distinguishing philosophical viewpoints in
Phenomenology: firstly there is an important belief and subjective
consciousness; then there is an active understanding of this consciousness and
lastly, there is a claim that there are certain essential structures to the
consciousness of which we gain direct knowledge by a certain kind of
reflection.
Advantages of phenomenology are; it is suited to small-
scale and low budgeted research where the main resource is the researcher
his/herself. It allows the researcher to deal with the complexity of the social
world through phenomena in depth. The approach is humanistic as there are
efforts to base its enquiry on the lived experiences of people in the everyday
world. (Denscombe)
The disadvantages of phenomenology (Denscombe)
are: it lacks a scientific basis; it can easily turn into the weakness of
researcher by people who do not share the same opinion; may only provide description
without analysis. Moreover, generalizing the research can be difficult as it
involves only small numbers or instances. In addition, the issues a phenomenological
researcher deals with may not be relevant to apply for big issues such as the
spheres of social policy, international relations and economic progress. Therefore,
it is possible to assume things in advance by the researcher which may cause
feasibility of suspending common sense.
